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Effectiveness of Adult Education Programme in Promoting Development among the Maasai Community in Arusha District Council -Tanzania

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of adult education in the promoting development among Maasai community in Rural District of Arusha, Tanzania. Four research questions guided the study: How does adult education programme promote development among Maasai community in Arusha DC? What is the attitude of the people towards the implementation of adult education programme in promoting development among Maasai community in Arusha district council? What are the challenges facing the implementation of adult education programme in Arusha District council? What suggestions can be put forward to ensure effective implementation of adult education programme to promote development among the Maasai community in Arusha District council? The study was anchored in . Andragoyg theory of adult learning. The study was guided by the Convergent Parallel Mixed Method Design. The target population was all educational officers, adult educators and adult learners in the rural district of Arusha. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to select the study participants. Questionnaires and interview guide were used to collect data. Research instruments were subjected to both content and face validity. Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient technique was used to test reliability for quantitative data and credibility dependability for qualitative data. Quantitative data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 23 to generate frequencies and percentages that summarized data and presented using tables. Qualitative was analyzed using content analysis based on themes and presented in narratives and direct quotes. Key findings showed that adult literacy has been effective in economic development whereby learners acquired skills that enabled them to start income generating activities. Adult literacy improved learners’ social development by enabling learners to communicate and interact  well in social activities. Literacy equipped the community with knowledge of the dangers of female genital mutilation and other harmful traditional practices which are being eradicated gradually. The study concluded that adult literacy is very effective in economic, social, cultural and political development. Negative attitude towards adult education, inadequate funding from the government, domestic work load and age disparity hindered effective implementation of adult education programmes. The study recommended that government provides instructional materials (modules), equipment and library services for adult learners. Instil positive attitudes towards education through guidance and counselling for men  to accept female teacheA

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………………………….. i

DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………………. iv

TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………………………….. v

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………….. vii

LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………………….. viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS……………………………………………. ix

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………….. 1

  • Background to the study…………………………………………………………………………. 1
  • Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………………… 16
  • Research Questions………………………………………………………………………………. 17
  • Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………… 18
  • Scope and Delimitation of the Study………………………………………………………. 19
  • Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………………. 19
  • Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………………………. 24
  • Operational Definitions of Key Terms……………………………………………………. 33

CHAPTER TWO:REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE…………………………… 35

  • Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
  • Critical Review of Theories………………………………………………………………….. 35
  • Review of Empirical Studies…………………………………………………………………. 39
    • Adult Education Effectiveness in Promoting Development………………………. 40
    • Maasai Community Attitude Towards Adult Education Programme………….. 54
    • Challenges Facing the Implementation of Adult Education Programme……… 58
    • Suggestions to Ensure Effective Implementation of Adult Education Programme………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66
  • Summary of Reviewed literature and identification Knowledge Gap…………. 71

CHAPTER THREE:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………. 73

  • Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
  • Locale of the Study………………………………………………………………………………. 73
  • Research Design………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
  • Target Population of the Study………………………………………………………………. 76
  • Sample and Sampling Procedures………………………………………………………….. 76
    • Sampling of Adult Learners…………………………………………………………….. 76
    • Sampling of Adult Educators…………………………………………………………… 77
    • Sampling of Education officers……………………………………………………….. 77
  • Description of Research Instruments……………………………………………………… 78
    • Questionnaire………………………………………………………………………………… 78
    • Interview Guide for Learners and Education Officers………………………… 79
  • Validity, Pilot Testing and Reliability of Research Instruments………………… 79
    • Pilot Testing of Research Instruments………………………………………………. 80
    • Reliability of Quantitative Data Collection Instruments…………………….. 80
  • Data Collection Procedures…………………………………………………………………… 82
  • Data analysis Procedures………………………………………………………………………. 82
  • Ethical considerations………………………………………………………………………… 82

CHAPTER FOUR:DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION……………………………………………………………………………………. 84

  • Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………. 84
  • Response Rate……………………………………………………………………………………… 84
  • Background Information of Participants…………………………………………………. 85
  • Effectiveness of Adult education in Promoting Development…………………… 92
  • Attitude of the People towards Implementation of Adult Education Programme…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 112
  • Challenges Facing Implementation of Adult Education Programme…………. 114
  • Measures to Ensure Effective Implementation of Adult Education………….. 118

CHAPTER FIVE:SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 124

  • Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….. 124
  • Summary of the Study………………………………………………………………………… 124
  • Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………… 135
  • Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………. 140

5.5. Suggestions for Further Study…………………………………………………………….. 143

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………… 144

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………. 150

APPENDIX 1: INTRODUCTION LETTER………………………………………………… 150

APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE EDUCATORS……………………….. 151

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ADULT LEARNERS………………….. 156

APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR DISTRICT EDUCATION OFFICERS            157

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

          Background to the study

 

Adult education plays a key role in creating social capital, fostering social inclusion, and fighting both immediate and less apparent social exclusion expenses. To enhance active citizenship, adult learning is an significant underpinning. Basic skills and key skills are now recognized as essential unmet requirements for many individuals in both advanced and poorer parts of the globe (Mlekwa 2001). The world we live is changing socially, politically and economically on an ongoing basis and fresh difficulties emerge. In order to keep abreast to these changes, one needs continuously learn for new knowledge, abilities and attitudes.

These new modifications include new farming techniques, new trading techniques, new teaching and learning techniques, new techniques of obtaining and disseminating data, and impact teaching techniques and learning strategies. Therefore, education continues as an energetic tool without which it becomes hard to cope with these modifications and it becomes almost equally impossible to satisfy both the national and the Millennium Development Goals. Based on the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), education is a major catalyst for human development (UN, 2010). The MDGs are: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, reducing child mortality rates, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability and developing a global partnership for development. Therefore successful adult education programmes are very important if the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are to be achieved. A literate community will fully participate on trainings on improved farming methods as well as hygiene to prevent infections.

 

The United Nations 2025 education goal is to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development including sustainable lifestyle, human rights, gender equality, promoting a culture of peace and non- Another goal is to increase the number of adults who have relevant skills including technical and vocational skills for employment and entrepreneurship  (UNESCO, 2011).  This study focus is on how adult education has helped to achieve the goal of economic, social, cultural and political development towards achievement of Tanzania sustainable development goals of ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promote learning opportunities for all. In addition, development play a role in achieving the vision of transforming Tanzania into a middle income and semi-industrialized nation in 25 years (Researcher, 2019).

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2006) described literacy as “a collection of concrete skills, especially cognitive reading and writing abilities, independence of the context in which they are obtained and the background of the individual who acquires them.” Nyerere (1978), as cited by Thalia (2009) argued that: In many countries, adult education has helped many people to regain some of the opportunities lost by illiteracy through adult training, especially in literacy (learn how to read and write, vocational skills training, citizenship education, community development among others). This has helped marginalized communities to regain some education skills for personal, social, economic and political development (p.58).

More than half of the worldwide illiterate population (53%) live in the area of South and West Asia. Furthermore, 24% of all illiterate adolescents live in sub-Saharan Africa, 12% in East Asia and the Pacific, 6.2% in the Arab States and 4.6% in Latin America and the Caribbean. It has been estimated that less than 2% of the worldwide an alphabet population live together in the rest of the world’s areas (UNESCO, 2013).

 

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2011) has reported that literacy rates have risen from 51.2% to 81.4% between 1995 and 2010, leaving approximately 775, 408, 031 illiterate adults remaining global. In England, it was believed that if adults could be taught successfully, they would also teach their children, and in time, there would be no need for adult based education programmes. The aim of educating adults to read and write and do arithmetic was not only to allow them to read the Bible, but also to make society members more productive (Kelly, 2011).

In 1953, 11 % of Cuba metropolitan population, nearly 42% of people living in the rural areas were illiterate. The government employed 35,000 skilled educators in a one-year campaign to eradicate illiteracy. During this campaign, more than 700,000 people were trained to read and write and Cuba announced in December 1961 that it had eradicated its illiteracy (Laubach, 2005). Therefore investment in training adult educators would help a country to reduce/eradicate the population illiteracy levels for improved development.

Jean and Sen (2013) research in India supported investments in education and health because of its valuable connection to freedom. Adult literacy was specifically identified as influential in various instrumental roles towards economic development and social opportunity. Greater literacy levels played instrumental social roles by facilitating public discussion of social needs and encouraging informed collective demands. Greater literacy was also valuable for empowerment and distributive roles because citizens had an increased ability to resist oppression, to organize politically and get a fairer deal.

England has an estimated 9 million working-age adults (more than a quarter of adults aged 16-65 years) with or both low literacy or numeracy abilities. This represents the general achievement of England in the Survey of Adult Skills-about the average for literacy, but well below the average for numeracy compared to other OECD countries in the Survey. These 9 million individuals are struggling with fundamental quantitative reasoning or having trouble

 

with easy written data. For example, they may struggle to assess how much petrol is left from a gauge view in the petrol tank, or they may not be able to fully comprehend directions on an aspirin bottle. They are called’ low-skilled’ here. Weak fundamental abilities decrease productivity and employability, harm citizenship, and are thus deeply involved in equity and social exclusion problems (OECD, 2016).

Archer and Cottingham (2014) evaluating females in literacy in Bangladesh noted that females increased their trust and self-sufficiency in family unit activity. Study Stromquist (2012) focusing on adult literacy programs in Brazil demonstrates a positive outcome on the relationship between literacy and self-esteem. This research noted a strong rise in self-esteem among females participating in the program of adult literacy. Robinson-Pant (2011) study on women’s literacy and health conducted in Nepal, Asia found out that adult literacy programme participants developed positive attitudes towards family planning and made them more open to speaking up for change in practice. She noted that participants valued learning reading and writing for symbolic as well as functional reasons, in preference to receiving health and other development knowledge.

Factors such as adverse attitude towards women’s schooling, poverty, and political circumstances in most sub-Saharan African nations hinder millions of people in their early ages from obtaining their vital human rights and fundamental education. This has led to a elevated unemployment rate among many economically vibrant people in most African countries, including Tanzania (UNESCO, 2013).To curb the challenges, adult education and literacy should be considered as crucial instruments. Many view adult education in general and adult literacy in specific as one of the most powerful tools to reduce poverty and inequality. It sets the basis for human civilization’s ongoing economic growth and development.

 

The UNESCO (2006) has indicated that in Sub – Saharan Africa, numbers of adult illiterates continue to rise. In 2008 more than 167 million adults in Sub – Saharan Africa (38% of the region’s adult’s population) were illiterate (UNESCO, 2006). During the independence era in 1960s over 70% of adult Tanzanians were illiterate (Mushi, 2009). The government had to put more emphasis on adult education to eradicate illiteracy in the country. Diseases were widespread and witchcrafts were ascribed to individuals. Poverty has been Tanzanians ‘ greatest companion. However, it was ascribed to the colonial government while less investment was made in adult education.

In Africa, illiteracy is still increasing; the World Bank (2012) reported that 56 percent of women as well as 37 percent of men are still illiterate in the least developed countries. A study by Ayodele and Adedokun (2012) in Nigeria attributes women’s exclusion from effective participation in development activities to lack of functional literacy and recommends that improvements in the area may be achieved by including training in life skills under the umbrella of literacy and numeracy, which are generally designated as adult literacy and basic education. They call for the establishment of more centres for adult education in the country so that everybody will have easy access to education and thus become more functional on their job performance and in the community in which they live.

In 1974, through the mixture of educators and functional activities of agricultural and industrial employees, Ethiopia embarked on a five-year program of attacking illiteracy. In fact, it’s sometimes said that in the world the map of hunger and the map of illiteracy are the same, it’s obvious that the region where people don’t have enough to eat is also where they can’t read or write and that’s no accident. People cannot eat more unless they generate more, and unless they are taught and possess the techniques to produce more, they cannot produce more (Laubach 2005).

 

When Kenya became independent in 1963, over half of the population was under the age of fifteen and 80% of the population was illiterate. Only half of the number of kids eligible for college between the ages of seven and thirteen actually attended college. Only 10 percent of those attending primary school went to secondary schools. There was no financial resource to expand formal child education quickly. The nation was poor and more than 20% of the domestic budget was spent on formal schooling alone. By global norms, this ratio was high to the point of overtraining and leaves little room for development beyond maintaining pace with the annual rise of 3 percent in population. Kenya’s current provision of adult basic education has been sporadic, often disorganized, and usually unrelated to any predetermined priority order or general national growth. The adult basic education was overshadowed by other fundamental and very critical priorities of the young and independent Kenya (Prosser & Clerke, 2010).

Approximately 10% of the total education budget by then was set aside for an adult education (Mushi, 2009). The “choice is yours” was a 1970 national wide campaign launched to impart functional literacy. This was followed by another campaign in 1973 known as “Man is Health” and in 1974 another campaign introduced was known as “Agriculture for Life”.  All these campaigns were based on teaching adult life skills, reading, writing and counting (Mushi, 2009). Evening class size at that time (1960s) varied from 10 to 60 students. By 1973 almost 3 million Tanzanians benefited from literacy campaign. It was estimated that these campaigns eradicated adult illiteracy from 70% to 35% (Mushi 2009).

A research carried out by Okpoko (2010) on positioning adult literacy to empower rural women for sustainable live hood concluded that women literacy is crucial to development. Olufunke (2011) conducted a survey on literacy as an significant instrument for women empowerment, which found that literacy is a weapon in the fight against poverty, disease and ignorance, and when all these are fought, an average female becomes empowered

 

to actively engage in community development problems. A research by Archer and Cottingham (2013) on females in literacy in Bangladesh found that females enhanced their trust and self-confidence in family unit activity.

A research conducted by Burchfield (1997) on the effect of community adult education has shown that adult literacy improves respect for the views of women from family and community members. UNESCO (2011-2012) conducted a survey on the Global Partnership for Girls and Women’s Education in Tanzania and found that social and cultural standards in Shinyanga often serve as obstacles to admission and completion of education, since the community and family environment does not always support women ‘ education. Early pregnancies, poverty and an inadequate learning environment in schools are other factors that affect adolescent girls’ education

The integrated community based Adult Education (ICBAE) started as a four year pilot project designed to develop learner-centered and community-based learning approaches in literacy and post literacy classes for adult and out of school youth in Tanzania. The program is implemented across all 25 regions of the Tanzania main land. Learning centres are located in primary schools and the learner cycle lasts 18 months. Content covers knowledge and skills relevant to the acquisitions of the literacy, life and vocation skills necessary for conducting the chosen income-generation activities. The main topics are: agriculture and micro-economic (crop production, livestock keeping, environment conservation, agro- economics, natural resources); health and hygiene (food & nutrition, clean water, infectious diseases, HIV, reproductive health and sex education); Socio-political education (household finance management, law and human rights, Tanzania traditions and customs, social services) (URT, 1995).

Tanzania like most developing countries depends on formal education while apparently neglecting adult education trainings. However, it provides for creation of the true

 

partnership between the state and other educational providers by encouraging them to establish and manage adult education and training institutions. Adult education during the colonial era was primarily a concern of private agencies. Very little attention was given to it by colonial administrators. For example, like in Tanganyika at that time adult education was given very little attention. Consequently, a need for trained manpower in Tanganyika immediately after independence was even pronounced in the field of adult education (Luchembe, 2009).

In the late 1970s and early 1980s there was an experience of international economic depression. This depression affected Tanzania as well in the sphere of education as a whole. This situation led to the deterioration of social services which included adult education and education in general. Due to the economic depressions, adult learners were forced to drop out of the classes due to government cutting off of the budget (MoEVT 2012). To counteract this Tanzanian government tried to introduce some projects such as Adult Education Development Project (AEDP) to reduce the level of adult illiteracy. In 2008 four pilot regions (Dares Salaam, Dodoma, Mwanza and Ruvuma) were in the project of implementing the Cuban Model on adult literacy development from 2008 to 2013 (URT, 2008). The overall objective of AEDP was and still is to enhance provision of adult literacy in Tanzania through provision of teaching and learning materials that will support the project and develop  capacity for the whole.

A major goal of Adult Education in Tanzania is to give adult the opportunity to  extend their knowledge and skills and to develop their competence in order to promote personal development, democracy, equality, economic growth and employment and fair distribution of wealth by the year 2025 (URT, 2018). According to National Bureau of statistics within the Ministry of planning, Economy and Empowerment (2016), from 2015 – population and Housing census, shows that illiterate adult people of age of 15 and above were

 

5,525,565 in Tanzania and in Armeru District illiterates were 79,166. For adult education to be a means for change people’s lives, particularly in rural areas, economically, politically, socially and cultural. People need to be empowered economically by giving them the ability to engage in income-generating operations that will help them access independent income. To be economically empowered, individuals need to be supplied with sufficient abilities through education to allow them to participate in income-generating operations that will allow them access to independent income.

According to Tanzania National Demographic and Household Survey (2015), majority of adults in Arusha District live on less than one dollar a day, more than 60% live in poorly constructed houses, 70% practice agriculture although their produce are of poor quality as a result of lack of farm inputs and skills to use modern methods of farming and morbidity and mortality rates are high due to poor hygiene and majority of women of child bearing age in the area do not know the importance of antenatal care and giving birth in a health center. The report from the survey also show that cultural practices like marrying off young contributes to high illiteracy level especially amongst women in the area. Report from Tanzania Election commission shows that during the last election 44.6% of voters in Arusha District had to be assisted to vote due to inability to read or write.

The Maasai tribe is a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern Tanzania. Maasai are pastoralists and have for many years resisted to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle and have reserved their culture and beliefs. Traditionally, nomadic tribes in Northeast Kenya have survived on a pastoral based economy in which the majority of people depend on herds of animals as a main source of livelihood. The ambition for success in this society is complex and often interdependent; on one side, they need herds large enough to feed themselves, and, on the other, they need families large enough to keep large herds and together they create a mutually dependent system. The elevated rate of infant mortality among the Maasai has resulted in not recognizing children until they reach three months of age. Maasai women’s education during pregnancy to attend clinic and hospital has allowed more babies to survive. Around their cattle, traditional Maasai lifestyle centers which constitute their main food source. A man’s wealth is measured in terms of cattle and kids. A herd of 50 bovine animals is respectable and the better the more kids. The Maasai think that rustling cattle from other attempts is about getting away what rightly belongs to them.

All the food needs of Maasais are met by their cattle. They eat meat on a weekly basis, drink milk, and drink blood on particular occasions. Literacy, however, has made them dependent on other ingredients such as sorghum, rice, potatoes, and cod. Due to population growth of the Maasai community, loss of cattle population due to disease and absence of accessible range lands due to new park borders and incursion by other tribes of settlement  and farming. Therefore, they are compelled to create fresh forms of self-support.

Agriculture in the Maasai community was introduced by Wameru women who were married to Maasai men. The emerging forms of employment among the Maasai people include farming, business, wage employment, business (selling traditional medicine, running of restaurant/shops, buying and selling of minerals, selling milk products, embroidery), or wage employment (security guards,/watchmen, waiters, tourist guides), (Goodman, 2002). However only literate people involve themselves in these activities since basic literacy is required in any kind of employment.

Traditionally, Maasai are polygynous. A woman does not only marry her husband, but the whole age group. This has lead to spread of many diseases especially sexually transmitted infection. The Masaai also removes deciduous canine tooth buds in early childhood a practice that has been documented in Maasai of Tanzania. There is a belief that diarrhoea, vomiting and other febrile illness of early childhood are caused by the gingival swelling over the

 

canine region (Goodman, 2002). The literate people amongst the community have realized the dangers of some of these practices and have abandoned them.

Despite the government coming up with measures to eradicate illiteracy in the country, illiteracy levels in Armeru district remains low. According to Tanzania National Demographic and Household Survey (2015), majority of adults in Arusha District live on less than one dollar a day, more than 60% live in poorly constructed houses, 70% practice agriculture although their produce are of poor quality as a result of lack of farm inputs and skills to use modern methods of farming and morbidity and mortality rates are high due to poor hygiene and majority of women of child bearing age in the area do not know the importance of antenatal care and giving birth in a health center. It is against this background that the researcher aims at assessing the effectiveness of adult education programme in promoting development in Maasai community in Arusha District council in Tanzania.

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